A qualitative ethnobotanical survey was conducted in March 2019 through key informant (KI) interviews. The methods used in similar studies ((Cacatian & Tabian, 2023); (Rahim et al., 2019); (Nyakoojo & Tugume, 2020)) were employed. The barangays selected were based on anecdotal information (Nyakoojo & Tugume, 2020); (Nyakoojo & Tugume, 2020)provided by some of the personnel of the City Agriculture Office. The City Agriculture Office of Ormoc purposively provided one key informant each for Barangays Bagong, Cabintan, Gaas, and Lake Danao based on their wide knowledge of the plant diversity in the study areas, and they provided folk knowledge of plants. Guided field excursions and field works were used to collect plant samples (Cacatian & Tabian, 2023) as well as additional data on the identity of the plants. The research team was joined in the field by the key informants who also served as local guides and were asked to mention wild edible plants that came into their minds; information on the wild edible plants and their mode of collection and preparation prior to consumption were recorded. The recorded data included: 1) vernacular names of the plant; 2) habit; 3) edible parts; 4) mode of harvest/preparation/consumption; 5) availability of the plants; 6) conservation status; and 7) additional information about the plants.

Approximately 600 g each of the plant samples were collected from the four study sites, i.e., Barangays Bagong, Cabintan, Gaas, and Lake Danao. Fresh fruit and leaf samples were carefully placed in plastic resealable bags and temporarily stored in styrofoam boxes with ice to prevent deterioration. Subsequently, the samples were transported to the University of the Philippines Cebu Biology laboratory for analysis. For plant identification purposes, fruit samples were preserved in 500 mL glass jars containing 95% ethanol. Leaves and stem samples were also collected to prepare plant vouchers. Initial plant identification was carried out using Co’s Digital Flora of the Philippines (Pelser et al., 2011). Digitized voucher specimens were then sent to the University of the Philippines Los Baños for verification.

Plant samples were meticulously collected, taking care to minimize external contamination. The collected samples (fruits, leaves, and tubers) were washed thoroughly with distilled water. Subsequently, the fruit samples were carefully sectioned by cutting them open or slicing them into thin, uniform pieces. A subset of the samples, earmarked for moisture content determination, underwent immediate processing (Islary et al., 2016).

The bulk of the samples were subjected to a thorough drying process, initially through air-drying for a duration of 24 hours under controlled laboratory conditions then dried in a hot air oven at 50 ^o C until their weight stabilized, indicating the complete removal of the moisture (Korish, 2016); (Nielsen, 2010). Upon achieving constant weight, all samples were pulverized to a fine, uniform consistency and placed in airtight plastic resealable bags (Islary et al., 2016); (Korish, 2016) to prevent moisture ingress. These bags were properly labelled then stored at room temperature.

Three grams of each fresh plant sample were carefully weighed and placed in a crucible that had been preheated to a constant weight in a hot air oven. The plant samples were subjected to controlled heating at a temperature of 105 °C to constant weight, which was confirmed when the difference in sample weights did not exceed 0.0005 g. Moisture content was calculated using Equation (1).

…………… (1)

Two grams per pulverized sample was subjected to boiling in a 0.25 N sulfuric acid (H₂ SO₄ ) solution. Subsequently, the mixture was subjected to filtration using a muslin cloth, and the residue was washed three times with hot distilled water. The residue from the previous step was further processed with 100 mL 0.313 N sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The resultant mixture was again subjected to filtration, followed by washing with hot distilled water, 0.5 N H ₂ SO ₄ , and 50% ethanol. The final residue obtained was placed in a crucible and dried at 100 °C to constant weight. The dried sample was allowed to cool in a desiccator for several minutes and was then weighed, establishing the initial weight (C ₁ ). Subsequently, the sample was incinerated in a muffle furnace at a maintained temperature of 550 °C for 5 hours and then cooled in a desiccator. After cooling, the sample was reweighed (final weight, C ₂ ). The percentage of crude fiber was determined using Equation 2.

…………. (2)

The quantification of crude fat content was conducted using the Soxhlet method with petroleum ether extraction. The Soxhlet extraction apparatus was prepared by heating the Soxhlet beakers to constant weight. The final weight of these beakers was recorded as a reference. Two grams of each of the pulverized plant samples were securely enclosed within improvised filter paper tea bags specially designed for this purpose; the sample-containing tea bags were then placed inside extraction thimbles which were positioned within the Soxhlet beakers. The apparatus was set up and run in a water bath to facilitate fat extraction. Subsequently, the Soxhlet beakers were subjected to drying to eliminate excess ether solution, with subsequent weighing performed until a constant weight was attained. The determination of crude fat content was computed using Equation (3).

………… (3)

Approximately 2 - 3 g of each of the samples were placed in a crucible preheated to a constant weight. The initial weight was recorded, along with the combined weight of the crucible and the sample. The sample in the crucible was subjected to high-temperature treatment in a muffle furnace at 550 °C for 6 hours. Following the ashing procedure, the crucible and its contents were allowed to cool in a desiccator to prevent moisture absorption. Subsequently, the ash weight was determined. The percentage of ash content was calculated using Equation (4).

……….. (4)

Total solids, representing the dry matter in the plant samples, was calculated by subtracting the moisture percentage from 100 (Equation 5).

Total solids = 100 − Moisture content ……… (5)

Five grams each of the pulverized plant samples were mixed with 3 M sulfuric acid (H ₂ SO ₄ ) solution and stirred for 1 hour. The resulting mixture was filtered and then gently heated between 80 °C to 90 °C using a hot water bath. The solution was titrated against 0.05 M potassium permanganate (KMnO ₄ ) solution, with the temperature of the mixture consistently maintained at 70 °C. The titration endpoint was identified by the persistence of a light pink color for 15 seconds. The oxalic acid content was determined by calculating the equivalent milligrams of oxalate in 1 mL of 0.05 M KMnO ₄ solution.

In a 250-mL beaker, 5 g each of the pulverized plant samples was added with 200 mL of 20% acetic acid solution (CH ₃ COOH). The beaker containing the resulting solution was covered with a watch glass and allowed to stand for 4 hours. The mixture was then filtered and concentrated to 50 mL using a hot water bath; this was then added with concentrated ammonium hydroxide (NH ₄ OH) until the precipitate was complete. The solution was allowed to settle for 3 hours and decanted. The supernatant was discarded and the resulting precipitate was washed with 20 mL of 0.1 M NH ₄ OH. The solution was then filtered with a pre-weighed Whatman no. 1 filter paper; the filter paper containing the precipitate was air-dried before weighing. The total alkaloids percentage was determined using Equation (6).

……….. (6)

The vitamin C content in the plant samples was determined following the methodology outlined by Rai and Panda (2014), with some modifications. Prior to the analysis, an extracting solvent was prepared by combining 0.75 g ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), 5.0 g oxalic acid (C ₂ H ₂ O ₄ ), ammonium molybdate ((NH ₄ ) ₂ MoO ₄ ), orthophosphoric acid (H ₃ PO ₄ ), 5% sulfuric acid (H ₂ SO ₄ ), and distilled water. From this solution, 11 mL was taken comprising 4 mL of EDTA, C ₂ H ₂ O ₄ , 2 mL (NH ₄ ) ₂ MoO ₄ , 1 mL 5% H ₂ SO ₄ , 1 mL H ₃ PO ₄ , and 3 mL distilled water. This solution was added to 2.0 g of finely pulverized plant sample and placed in a 15 mL test tube. The test tube was vigorously shaken and allowed to stand for approximately 15 minutes. Subsequently, the resulting mixture was filtered using Whatman no. 1 filter paper, with the residue being discarded, and the filtrate was measured for its absorbance at 520 nm. For standardization, a standard curve was constructed using various concentrations of vitamin C (100%, 75%, 50%, 25%, 10% and 5%). The same procedure was carried out with the standard solutions. The vitamin C content was calculated using the linear equation derived from the standard curve.

One hundred grams of each of the ground samples were sent to Technolab Analytical Group in Mandaue City, Cebu, Philippines, for the determination of the mineral contents.

Measuring the amount of moisture in a plant is the first step in assessing the overall nutritional value of plants. A relatively high moisture content would reveal that the plant is more liable to microbial degradation (Datta et al., 2019). Low moisture content in plants indicates the presence of insoluble materials and entails longer shelf life with reduced susceptibility to microbial infection; this is determined by the amount of total solids in plants (the composition of plants excluding the water content).

As shown in Table 2 the wild edible fruits D. philippinensis (91.17 ± 0.40 g/100 g), M. malabathricum (78.10 ± 1.00 g/100 g), A. montana (78.51 ± 12.43 g/100 g), R. fraxinifolius (77.94 ± 1.20 g/100 g), and Decaspermum parviflorum (66.76 ± 0.64 g/100 g) had relatively higher moisture content. The edible fern, D. esculentum (89.21 ± 1.37 g/100 g) that grows in damp areas, and wild yam, D. hispida (63.46 ± 2.53 g/100 g), also exhibited high moisture content. The unripe fruits of Flacourtia jangomas had relatively low moisture content (27.90 ± 2.34 g/100g), which is typical of young, developing seed fruits.

Ash content, which represents the inorganic residue remaining after the complete oxidation of organic matter in food samples, indicates the availability of inorganic minerals in plants ((Datta et al., 2019); (Mundaragi et al., 2017); (, 2023); (Yiblet & Adamu, 2023)). As observed in Table 2, most of the wild plants collected had relatively high ash content exceeding up to 20% with D. parviflorum having the highest among the plants analyzed, followed by F. jangomas. The high ash content in these fruits, such as D. parviflorum and F. jangomas can be attributed to their unripe state and their large, multiple seeds. The relatively high ash content in other wild plants in the study indicated that these plants contained high amounts of minerals.

Crude fat, a term used to describe the amount of fats in feedstuffs, food, and plants, represents the combination of free lipids and other fat-soluble materials present in a sample that can be dissolved in the solvent being used for extraction (AAFCO Lab Methods and Services Committee 2014). The crude fat content among the analyzed plants ranged from 0.66 g/100 g to 6.97 g/100 g (Table 2), with R. fraxinifolius having the highest fat content and wild yam having the lowest among the samples.

Crude fiber is the most common measurement of fiber in plants. In this study, R. fraxinifolius had the highest crude fiber content at 26.59 g/100 g, followed by F. jangomas at 14.63 g/100 g and D. esculentum at 13.52 g/100 g. The rest have fairly moderate amounts of fiber content. The crude fiber contents of the fruits of R. fraxinifolius, F. jangomas and the leaves of D. esculentum are higher than the dietary fiber content of commonly consumed fruits and vegetables like apple, banana, asparagus, carrot, or broccoli (Vicente et al. 2014) . Although crude fiber does not represent the total dietary fiber and may underestimate the total amount of dietary fiber present in plants, the results may imply that these plants can be good alternative sources of fiber.

Minerals are inorganic substances that comprise one of the four major classes of micronutrients, which are essential nutrients needed in small amounts in the body. Minerals can be classified into two classes: macroelements and microelements (trace elements) (Siddiqui et al., 2014). These minerals are found in plants, and the composition and quantity of these elements vary depending on factors such as the type of cultivar, growth conditions, type of substrate, fertilizers used, nutrients requirement of the plant, and growth stages of the plant at the time of harvest ((Jākobsone et al., 2015)).

The mineral composition of the wild edible plants in the study is presented in Table 3. The parameters analyzed include sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and manganese (Mn).

M. malabathricum had the highest sodium (74.9 mg/kg) and calcium (5,017 mg/kg) contents among all the plant samples, followed by R. fraxinifolius at 74.8 mg/kg for Na, and 1,476 mg/kg for Ca. The Na content of D. parviflorum was 67.2 mg/kg, while the Ca content of F. jangomas and A. montana was 1,675 mg/kg and 721 mg/kg, respectively. D. hispida had the least amount of calcium among the samples collected in Ormoc City. The calcium content of the plants tested was higher than in some cultivated vegetables like lettuce, cabbage, and spinach (Datta et al., 2019).

Results showed that the WEPs in this study are not good sources of potassium since the potassium levels in the samples were below the detection limit (< 0.01 mg/kg). The wild edible fruits from Ormoc City contained high amounts of magnesium ranging from 1,650 mg/kg to 20,802 mg/kg. M. malabathricum had the highest magnesium content (20,802 mg/kg) among all the plants analyzed, followed by R. fraxinifolius (19,116 mg/kg). Magnesium aids in preventing muscle degeneration, growth retardation, cardiomyopathy, immunologic dysfunction, and bleeding disorders, among others (Datta et al., 2019).

Among the plants analyzed, D. esculentum had the highest iron content (31.5 mg/kg), followed by D. philippinensis (30.6 mg/kg) and M. malabathricum (23.5 mg/kg). The remaining samples had iron levels below the detection limit. For copper, D. esculentum leaves had the highest copper content (38.5 mg/kg) among all the plants. Zinc concentration was high in D. esculentum (44.4 mg/kg), F. jangomas (34.1 mg/kg), and M. malabathricum, (28.9 mg/kg), while it was low in A. montana (0.39 mg/kg). Lastly, for manganese, M. malabathricum had the highest manganese content (298 mg/kg), while D. parviflorum had the lowest manganese concentration (3.2 mg/kg). Iron, zinc, copper, sulfur, manganese, and iodine, are consumed in smaller amounts (< 100 mg/dL) (Linkon et al., 2015). Although these microelements play essential roles in various metabolic processes in the body, they are needed only in small amounts, and their intake should be regulated.

The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for calcium (1,000 mg/day), magnesium (400 mg/day), and iron (8 mg/day) (Datta et al., 2019)suggests that the plants can supplement the daily mineral requirement.

Vitamin C, chemically known as ascorbic acid, is an important factor in assessing the quality of fruits (Khilari & Sharma, 2016). In addition to the polyphenols present in plants, vitamin C also contributes to the antioxidative properties of plants. L-ascorbic acid cannot be synthesized in humans and must be, therefore, consumed from food sources. It is well known that plant-based foods, especially fruits, are generally high in vitamin C, making them good sources of ascorbic acid (Lykkesfeldt et al., 2014). Vitamin C plays a crucial role in various metabolic processes, such as the formation of bile salts, serotonin production, the reduction of allergic activity, and the scavenging of free radicals (Chambial et al., 2013).

As shown in Table 4, low vitamin C content was observed in D. philippinensis (katmon) fruits and unripe fruits of D. parviflorum and F. jangomas. Relatively high vitamin C content was found in M. malabathricum (82.58 ± 14.27 g/100 g), followed by A. montana (72.47±2.21 g/100 g), and R. fraxinifolius (40.28± 8.03 g/100 g). The edible fern D. esculentum (21.94 ± 6.55 g/100 g) and D. hispida (25.90 ± 2.93 g/100 g) had lower vitamin C content. Some of the fruits in this study could help supplement the recommended daily allowance of ascorbic acid for different life stages and groups aged 1- 70 years which is 15 to 120 mg per day (Ojelel et al., 2020).

Compounds that have specific functions for plant growth or defense mechanism (H, 2014) but can be toxic and/or anti-nutritive in humans, are labeled as antinutrients; they result in health hazard affecting digestion and the absorption of essential nutrients ((Lo et al., 2018); (Popova & Mihaylova, 2019)). They bind to minerals and other nutrients and reduce their bioavailability and digestibility, excess consumption of these substances may have adverse effects and may lead to toxicity ( (Nath et al., 2022); (Lo et al., 2018); (Aina et al., 2012); (H, 2014)). Alkaloids are a group of naturally occurring nitrogen-containing compounds produced from secondary metabolic pathways in plants to protect plants from herbivory and pathogenic attacks ((Almeida AC et al., 2017)).

(Ifemeje et al., 2014)

The amounts of oxalate in the plants analyzed ranged from 0.95 g/100 g to 0.0057 g/100 g, with the highest observed in A. montana fruits and the lowest in D. parviflorum. Oxalates are substances that can bind with other minerals (e.g., calcium) and form insoluble salts (Petroski & Minich, 2020).

A total of 15 edible plant species, representing 13 families, were identified in the study. D. philippinensis had the highest moisture content, followed by M. malabathricum, A. montana, and R. fraxinifolius. Most of the wild plants collected had relatively high ash content exceeding up to 20% with D. parviflorum having the highest among the plants analyzed, followed by F. jangomas, indicating a rich mineral content. R. fraxinifolius had the highest crude fiber content, followed by F. jangomas and D. parviflorum. The rest had moderate amounts of fiber content.

The fruits of M. malabathricum exhibited the highest Ca, Na, Mg, and Mn content, as well as the highest vitamin C content. R. fraxinifolius had the second highest Na content, and F. jangomas had the second highest Ca content. D. esculentum leaves had the highest iron, copper and zinc content, and a relatively high magnesium content. D. philippinensis and M. malabathricum also had relatively high iron content. The remaining samples had iron levels below the detection limit.

The fruits of A. montana, R. fraxinifolius, and M. malabathricum showed a relatively high vitamin C content. R. fraxinifolius exhibited the highest alkaloids content and D. hispida the lowest, while oxalate content was highest in A. montana fruits and the lowest in D. parviflorum fruits.

Although 7 out of the 15 plant species identified as edible were not collected and analyzed, studies indicate that they are also considered edible in other countries and regions.

The sap of Arenga pinnata may be converted to palm sugar, which has a low glycemic index, making it a healthier alternative to refined sugar, particularly for diabetics (Haagen & Lantican, 2014). In Bhutan, certain villages believe that soup made from the young shoot of Calamus sp., helps alleviate nausea (, 2006). Similarly, local communities in Central Kalimantan in Indonesia consider Calamus sp. a food source (Fambayun & Kalima, 2022). A study on consumption practices in Assam, India, revealed that Calamus sp. shoots are eaten in various forms, i.e., raw, boiled, fried, roasted, and often cooked with other ingredients, such as fish, meat, black gram pulses, etc. (Thakur & Sheth, 2015). Another study found that D. angustifolia, and D. fissa are the preferable rattan used for food by the community near peatland areas in Central Kalimantan, both for daily sustenance and cultural activities. (Fambayun & Kalima, 2022)

Although Caryota mitis and Alpinia elegans were identified by key informants in this study as edible, they are primarily valued for their medicinal properties ( (Dalisay et al., 2018); Naïve et al. 2019; (Shahria et al., 2017)). In Bangladesh the roots and fruits of Caryota mitis have been reported to be traditionally used by folk medicinal practioners of a number of villages for treatment of constipation and hemorrhoids (Shahria et al., 2017). Alpinia elegans, an endemic Philippine medicinal plant, is known for treating musculoskeletal diseases, hemoptysis, headache, migraine, stomachache, and as an anti-relapse for women. (Naïve et al. 2019; (Dalisay et al., 2018)).

Melothria pendula L., now naturalized in Peninsular Malaysia, mainland Sumatra, Borneo (Sabah), the Philippines, and Sulawesi, thrives in urban areas and grows spontaneously along roadsides, in gardens, open spaces, and ditches, burial grounds and abandoned land (Husaini et al., 2024). In parts of Mexico, it is used as food and in beverages (Guerrero-Torres et al., 2023), while in the Philippines, it is recognized as a common medicinal plant (Raju et al., 2021).

The fruit of Passiflora edulis is considered a rich source of vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin C. In Colombia, its pulp is used to prepare juices and soft drinks (Jiménez et al., 2011). Among Brazilian passion fruit species, Passiflora edulis Sims is the most cultivated and valued for its flavor and aroma (T et al., 2021).